Astaxanthin and some of its uses
Astaxanthin and some of its uses
Astaxanthin is a carotenoid with the chemical name 3,3′-dihydroxy-4,4′-diketo-β-β carotene that has the molecular formula C40H52O4 with a molar mass of 594.84g, and presents two asymmetric carbons located at the 3′ and 3′ β-ionone ring. Astaxanthin (ASTX) is a xanthophyll (oxygen-containing carotenoids) (Hyperreactio luteinalis (synonym: theca lutein cysts) refers to multilocular cystic ovarian mass commonly seen in patients with high HCG stimulation, such as in molar pregnancy, choriocarcinoma, or multiple gestations) carotenoid which is abundant in marine animals, such as salmon and shrimp. ASTX has a remarkable antifibrogenic effect and a potential to prevent the activation of quiescent HSCs(Hepatic Stellate Cells) as well as the reversion of activated HSCs to a quiescent state. ASTX reduces collagen accumulation with a concomitant decrease in the expression of fibrogenic genes in the liver. Astaxanthin (ATX) protects against oxidative stress, various diseases, and age-related degeneration. It is metabolized primarily by hepatic cytochrome P450 1A1 and 1A2 in rats. However, because the free form of ATX is not water-soluble and has low bioavailability, prodrug ATX has been developed to improve its solubility. ATX is generally recognized as safe in the United States. Among its uses, ATX is a potential antidementia agent that lowers β-amyloid in human red blood cells. The antiinflammatory capacity of ASTX and its ability to enhance antioxidant defense are responsible for its protective effect on the development of liver fibrosis. ASX has also been reported to reduce hepatic steatosis as well as prevent and also reverse NASH progression in mice.Additionally, in many studies ATX has been found to alleviate diabetes mellitus, reduce metabolic syndrome risks, and provide protection against numerous forms of cancer. ATX also prevents the progression of diabetic nephropathy, alleviates endothelial dysfunction, and protects against cardiovascular disease. It may also be the most effective carotenoid for preventing eye diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration. This chapter describes the current ATX research development focusing on its pharmacokinetics, health benefits, and toxicity.
Astaxanthin (C40H52O4) is a xanthophyll containing 13 conjugated double bonds and is abundant in microorganisms such as H. pluvialis and Paracoccus carotinifaciens and in seafoods such as salmon and shrimp. Currently, astaxanthin is mainly produced by chemical synthesis, but the market for naturally occurring astaxanthin, e.g., that derived from H. pluvialis and P. carotinifaciens, has rapidly expanded. Astaxanthin is a superior antioxidant and is known as “super vitamin E’ because its antioxidant activity surpasses that of other carotenoids, such as β-carotene, canthaxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, as well as vitamins C and E, especially in quenching singlet oxygens and scavenging free radicals. Moreover, practical applications of efficient astaxanthin production from cyanobacteria utilizing metabolic engineering are also expected in the future. This carotenoid has been traditionally used in crustacean and salmonid aquacultures to provide the characteristic pink-red color of these species and in egg yolk pigmentation for laying hens. Additionally, astaxanthin exhibits strong antioxidant activity, approximately 10 and 100 times higher than those of β-carotene and α-tocopherol, respectively, and its intake is believed to provide multiple health benefits. Thus, the use of astaxanthin in the food industry is of significant interest. As these numerous applications have increased the demand for astaxanthin-rich products, the global market of this carotenoid is expected to reach a size of USD 3.4 billion by 2027, expanding at a CAGR of 16.2%. In addition to its anticancer activity, it also has the ability to improve eye health. Increasing evidence has demonstrated the role of astaxanthin in protecting against chemically-induced cancers, enhancing the immune system, preventing the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation, and treating a number of human diseases, such as atherosclerosis and age-related macular degeneration. Astaxanthin is being marketed as a functional food ingredient in many places of the world. Astaxanthin exhibits both in vivo and in vitro preclinical antitumor efficacy in various cancer models and exerts antiproliferative, antiapoptotic, and anti-invasive effects through different molecules and pathways, such as nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ). However, to the best of our knowledge, there are no clinical trials or well-defined clinical studies evaluating the effectiveness of astaxanthin administration in cancers; therefore, further studies are needed to assess its potential as an anticancer agent in humans. Astaxanthin can pass through the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in the retina of mammals.
In addition to its role as functional food ingredients or as dietary supplements, the major application of astaxanthin is as feed additive in aquaculture and the poultry industry. In aquaculture, astaxanthin plays an important role in enhancing flesh coloration (i.e., the pink color) of farmed salmonids which is desired by consumers. Since salmonids lack the ability to synthesize astaxanthin de novo, the pigment must be incorporated into their diets. In the poultry industry, astaxanthin is effective for increasing yolk coloration in eggs. Several studies have demonstrated that astaxanthin intake hinders the development of eye fatigue, such as that observed in visual display terminal workers, and might improve retinal capillary blood flow. Moreover, the intake of astaxanthin results in its accumulation in the brain, which suggests that this carotenoid may prevent the diseases localized therein. Rahman studied the role of astaxanthin in hippocampal insulin resistance in an Alzheimer's disease rat model and found that this compound exhibited neuroprotective and antiamyloidogenic activities. Research on astaxanthin for brain diseases and aging is rapidly progressing, and numerous positive data have been reported. Astaxanthin is biosynthesized by providing both β-ionone rings of β-carotene with hydroxyl- and oxo-moieties at C3 and C4, respectively. The intense dark red xanthophyll, which has no provitamin A activity, plays a role in pigmentation of various animals, conspicuous examples include wild and pen-reared salmon and red crabs, which compulsorily require astaxanthin in their diet. Although recent studies point to superior antioxidant properties compared with β-carotene, astaxanthin applications in nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and food industry are still scarce. The predominant use of the xanthophyll is as a pigmentation source, most notably in aquaculture of salmon and trout. Improved fertility and enhanced immune response are also ascribed to astaxanthin supplementation of the fish diet.In addition, astaxanthin exerts immunomodulatory effects and is believed to decrease the risk of neurodegenerative diseases, atherosclerosis, and type 2 diabetes. Park reported that dietary astaxanthin (2 mg day− 1) decreases the levels of a DNA damage biomarker and an acute-phase protein while increasing the immune response in young healthy females (average age = 21.5 years). Another notable health-promoting effect of astaxanthin is its ability to improve skin quality.
Reference
Astaxanthin: Health Benefits and Toxicity
Major Dietary Interventions for the Management of Liver Disease
Production of High-Value Products by Marine Microalgae Thraustochytrids
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